Types of Database Management Systems

There are four structural types of database management systems:

• Hierarchical databases.
• Network databases.
• Relational databases.
• Object-oriented databases

Hierarchical Databases (DBMS) :
In the Hierarchical Database Model we have to learn about the databases. It is very fast and simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about there groups of parent/child relationships, just like as  a tree structure. The structure implies that a record can have also a repeating information. In this structure Data follows a series of records, It is a set of field values attached to it. It collects all  records together as a record type. These record types are the equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the equivalent of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses these type Relationships.

             
Advantage : Hierarchical database can be accessed and updated rapidly because in this model structure is like as a tree and the relationships between records are defined in advance. This feature is a two-edged.

Disadvantage : This type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have only one parent, and relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if they make sense from a logical standpoint. Hierarchical databases are so in their design. it can adding a new field or record requires that the entire database be redefined.    

Network Database: A network databases are mainly used on a large digital computers. It more connections can be made between different types of data, network databases are considered more efficiency It contains limitations must be considered when we have to use this kind of database. It is Similar to the hierarchical databases, network databases .Network databases are similar to hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical structure. A network database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network of records.

In network databases, children are called members and parents are called occupier. The difference between each child or member can have more than one parent.

The Approval of the network data model similar with the esteem of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. The network model authorized the modeling of many-to-many relationships in data.

The network model is very similar to the hierarchical model really. Actually the hierarchical model is a subset of the network model. However, instead of using a single-parent tree hierarchy, the network model uses set theory to provide a tree-like hierarchy with the exception that child tables were allowed to have more than one parent. It supports many-to-many relationships.

Relational Databases :
In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical and network databases require the user to pass  a hierarchy in order to access needed data. These databases connect to the data in different files by using common data numbers or a key field. Data in relational databases is stored in different access control tables, each having a key field that mainly identifies each row. In the relational databases are more reliable than either the hierarchical or network database structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with data are called relations (tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as attributes or fields.

Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each row, and that these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.

The relational database has two major reasons:

1. Relational databases can be used with little or no training.
2. Database entries can be modified without specify the entire body.

Properties of Relational Tables:

In the relational database we have to follow some properties which are given below.

• It's Values are Atomic
• In Each Row is alone.
• Column Values are of the Same thing.
• Columns is undistinguished.
• Sequence of Rows is Insignificant.
• Each Column has a common Name.

  
Object-Oriented Model :
In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming .It takes more than  storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's increase the semantics of the C++ and Java .It provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing native language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming languages.This approach is the analogical of the application and database development into a constant data model and language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural data modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object developers can write complete database applications with a decent amount of additional effort.

The object-oriented database derivation is the integrity of object-oriented programming language systems and consistent systems. The power of the  object-oriented databases comes from the cyclical treatment of both consistent data, as found in databases, and transient data, as found in executing programs.

Object-oriented databases use small, recyclable separated of software called objects. The objects themselves are stored in the object-oriented database. Each object contains of two elements:

1. Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics).
2. Instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data.

Disadvantage of Object-oriented databases

1.  Object-oriented databases have these disadvantages.
2. Object-oriented database are more expensive to develop.
3. In the Most organizations are unwilling to abandon and convert from those databases.

They have already invested money in developing and implementing.

The benefits to object-oriented databases are compelling. The ability to mix and match reusable objects provides incredible multimedia capability.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Database Management System (DBMS)

Advantages of Database Management System:

The DBMS has a number of advantages as compared to traditional computer file processing approach. The DBA must keep in mind these benefits or capabilities during designing databases, coordinating and monitoring the DBMS.

The major advantages of DBMS are described below.

1. Controlling Data Redundancy:

In non-database systems (traditional computer file processing), each application program has its own files. In this case, the duplicated copies of the same data are created at many places. In DBMS, all the data of an organization is integrated into a single database. The data is recorded at only one place in the database and it is not duplicated. For example, the dean's faculty file and the faculty payroll file contain several items that are identical. When they are converted into database, the data is integrated into a single database so that multiple copies of the same data are reduced to-single copy.

In DBMS, the data redundancy can be controlled or reduced but is not removed completely. Sometimes, it is necessary to create duplicate copies of the same data items in order to relate tables with each other.

By controlling the data redundancy, you can save storage space. Similarly, it is useful for retrieving data from database using queries.

2. Data Consistency:

By controlling the data redundancy, the data consistency is obtained. If a data item appears only once, any update to its value has to be performed only once and the updated value (new value of item) is immediately available to all users.

If the DBMS has reduced redundancy to a minimum level, the database system enforces consistency. It means that when a data item appears more than once in the database and is updated, the DBMS automatically updates each occurrence of a data item in the database.

3. Data Sharing:

In DBMS, data can be shared by authorized users of the organization. The DBA manages the data and gives rights to users to access the data. Many users can be authorized to access the same set of information simultaneously. The remote users can also share same data. Similarly, the data of same database can be shared between different application programs.

4. Data Integration:

In DBMS, data in database is stored in tables. A single database contains multiple tables and relationships can be created between tables (or associated data entities). This makes easy to retrieve and update data.

5. Integrity Constraints:

Integrity constraints or consistency rules can be applied to database so that the correct data can be entered into database. The constraints may be applied to data item within a single record or they may be applied to relationships between records.

Examples:

The examples of integrity constraints are:

(i) 'Issue Date' in a library system cannot be later than the corresponding 'Return Date' of a book.

(ii) Maximum obtained marks in a subject cannot exceed 100.

(iii) Registration number of BCS and MCS students must start with 'BCS' and 'MCS' respectively etc.

There are also some standard constraints that are intrinsic in most of the DBMSs. These are;

Constraint Name	Description
PRIMARY KEY	Designates a column or combination of columns as Primary Key and therefore, values of columns cannot be repeated or left blank.
FOREIGN KEY	Relates one table with another table.
UNIQUE	Specifies that values of a column or combination of columns cannot be repeated.
NOT NULL	Specifies that a column cannot contain empty values.
CHECK	Specifies a condition which each row of a table must satisfy.

Most of the DBMSs provide the facility for applying the integrity constraints. The database designer (or DBA) identifies integrity constraints during database design. The application programmer can also identify integrity constraints in the program code during developing the application program. The integrity constraints are automatically checked at the time of data entry or when the record is updated. If the data entry operator (end-user) violates an integrity constraint, the data is not inserted or updated into the database and a message is displayed by the system. For example, when you draw amount from the bank through ATM card, then your account balance is compared with the amount you are drawing. If the amount in your account balance is less than the amount you want to draw, then a message is displayed on the screen to inform you about your account balance.

6. Data Security:

Data security is the protection of the database from unauthorized users. Only the authorized persons are allowed to access the database. Some of the users may be allowed to access only a part of database i.e., the data that is related to them or related to their department. Mostly, the DBA or head of a department can access all the data in the database. Some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed to retrieve as well as to update data. The database access is controlled by the DBA. He creates the accounts of users and gives rights to access the database. Typically, users or group of users are given usernames protected by passwords.

Most of the DBMSs provide the security sub-system, which the DBA uses to create accounts of users and to specify account restrictions. The user enters his/her account number (or username) and password to access the data from database. For example, if you have an account of e-mail in the "hotmail.com" (a popular website), then you have to give your correct username and password to access your account of e-mail. Similarly, when you insert your ATM card into the Auto Teller Machine (ATM) in a bank, the machine reads your ID number printed on the card and then asks you to enter your pin code (or password). In this way, you can access your account.

7. Data Atomicity:

A transaction in commercial databases is referred to as atomic unit of work. For example, when you purchase something from a point of sale (POS) terminal, a number of tasks are performed such as;

• Company stock is updated.
• Amount is added in company's account.
• Sales person's commission increases etc.

All these tasks collectively are called an atomic unit of work or transaction. These tasks must be completed in all; otherwise partially completed tasks are rolled back. Thus through DBMS, it is ensured that only consistent data exists within the database.

8. Database Access Language:

Most of the DBMSs provide SQL as standard database access language. It is used to access data from multiple tables of a database.

9. Development of Application:

The cost and time for developing new applications is also reduced. The DBMS provides tools that can be used to develop application programs. For example, some wizards are available to generate Forms and Reports. Stored procedures (stored on server side) also reduce the size of application programs.

10. Creating Forms:

Form is very important object of DBMS. You can create Forms very easily and quickly in DBMS, Once a Form is created, it can be used many times and it can be modified very easily. The created Forms are also saved along with database and behave like a software component.

A Form provides very easy way (user-friendly interface) to enter data into database, edit data, and display data from database. The non-technical users can also perform various operations on databases through Forms without going into the technical details of a database.

11. Report Writers:

Most of the DBMSs provide the report writer tools used to create reports. The users can create reports very easily and quickly. Once a report is created, it can be used many times and it can be modified very easily. The created reports are also saved along with database and behave like a software component.

12. Control Over Concurrency:

In a computer file-based system, if two users are allowed to access data simultaneously, it is possible that they will interfere with each other. For example, if both users attempt to perform update operation on the same record, then one may overwrite the values recorded by the other. Most DBMSs have sub-systems to control the concurrency so that transactions are always recorded" with accuracy.

13. Backup and Recovery Procedures:

In a computer file-based system, the user creates the backup of data regularly to protect the valuable data from damaging due to failures to the computer system or application program. It is a time consuming method, if volume of data is large. Most of the DBMSs provide the 'backup and recovery' sub-systems that automatically create the backup of data and restore data if required. For example, if the computer system fails in the middle (or end) of an update operation of the program, the recovery sub-system is responsible for making sure that the database is restored to the state it was in before the program started executing.

14. Data Independence:

The separation of data structure of database from the application program that is used to access data from database is called data independence. In DBMS, database and application programs are separated from each other. The DBMS sits in between them. You can easily change the structure of database without modifying the application program. For example you can modify the size or data type of a data items (fields of a database table).

On the other hand, in computer file-based system, the structure of data items are built into the individual application programs. Thus the data is dependent on the data file and vice versa.

15. Advanced Capabilities:

DBMS also provides advance capabilities for online access and reporting of data through Internet. Today, most of the database systems are online. The database technology is used in conjunction with Internet technology to access data on the web servers.

Disadvantages of Database Management System (DBMS):

Although there are many advantages but the DBMS may also have some minordisadvantages. These are:

1. Cost of Hardware & Software:

A processor with high speed of data processing and memory of large size is required to run the DBMS software. It means that you have to upgrade the hardware used for file-based system. Similarly, DBMS software is also Very costly.

2. Cost of Data Conversion:

When a computer file-based system is replaced with a database system, the data stored into data file must be converted to database files. It is difficult and time consuming method to convert data of data files into database. You have to hire DBA (or database designer) and system designer along with application programmers; Alternatively, you have to take the services of some software houses. So a lot of money has to be paid for developing database and related software.

3. Cost of Staff Training:

Most DBMSs are often complex systems so the training for users to use the DBMS is required. Training is required at all levels, including programming, application development, and database administration. The organization has to pay a lot of amount on the training of staff to run the DBMS.

4. Appointing Technical Staff:

The trained technical persons such as database administrator and application programmers etc are required to handle the DBMS. You have to pay handsome salaries to these persons. Therefore, the system cost increases.

5. Database Failures:

In most of the organizations, all data is integrated into a single database. If database is corrupted due to power failure or it is corrupted on the storage media, then our valuable data may be lost or whole system stops.

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Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS A database management system is the software system that allows users to define, create and maintain a database and provides controlled access to the data.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is basically a collection of programs that enables users to store, modify, and extract information from a database as per the requirements. DBMS is an intermediate layer between programs and the data. Programs access the DBMS, which then accesses the data. There are different types of DBMS ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. The following are main examples of database applications:

• Computerized library systems

• Automated teller machines

• Flight reservation systems

• Computerized parts inventory systems

A database management system is a piece of software that provides services for accessing a database, while maintaining all the required features of the data. Commercially available Database management systems in the market are dbase, FoxPro, IMS and Oracle, MySQL, SQL Servers and DB2 etc.

These systems allow users to create update, and extract information from their databases.

Compared to a manual filing system, the biggest advantages to a computerized database system are speed, accuracy, and' accessibility.

Who makes this database software?

There are a lot of database software manufacturers out there and a wide range of prices, sizes, speeds and functionalities. At the lower end of the scale are personal database software products like Microsoft Access, which is designed to be used by individuals or small companies relatively little data. User friendliness and ease of use are the priority rather than speed and scalability (in other words, it works well when you have 100 records but not when you have 100,000). At the higher end are full-fledged enterprise solutions, such as Oracle Enterprise Edition. These database software products can handle millions of data entries and are fast and efficient. They have ·many optimization and performance tools and generally require a Database Administrator (DBA) to look after them. Products in this range can also be very expensive.

In the middle are products like Microsoft SQL Server, which is a logical upgrade from Microsoft Access for Windows users. There are also several very good free database software products, such as MySQL and PostgreSQL. These are lacking on the user interface side, but can certainly compete on speed and scalability.

Developments and Evolution of DBMS Concept

We have already seen that the predecessor to the DBMS was the file-based system. However, there was never a time when the database approach began and the file-based system ceased. In fact, the file-based system still exists in specific areas. It has been suggested that the DBMS has its roots in the 1960s Apollo moon-landing project, which was initiated in response to USA's President Kennedy's objective of landing a man on the moon by the end of that decade. At that time there was no system available that would be able to handle and manage the vast amounts of information that the project would generate. As a result, North American Aviation (NAA, now Rockwell International), the prime contractor for the project, developed software known as GUAM (Generalized Update Access Method). GUAM was based on the concept that smaller components come together as parts of larger components, and so on, until the final product is assembled. This structure, which confirms to an upside down tree, is also known as a hierarchical structure.

In the mid 1960s, IBM joined NAA to develop GUAM into what is now known as IMS (Information Management System). The reason why IBM restricted IMS to the management of hierarchies of records was to allow the use of serial storage devices, most notably magnetic tape, which was a market requirement at that time. This restriction was subsequently dropped. Although one of the earliest commercial DBMS, IMS is still main hierarchical DBMS used by most large mainframe installations.

In the mid-1960s, another significant development was the emergency of IDS (Integrated Data Store) from General Electric. This work was headed by one of the early pioneers of database systems, Charles Bachmann. This development led to a new type of database system known as the network DBMS, which had a profound effect on the information systems of that generation. The network database was developed partly to address the need to represent more complex data relationships that could be modeled with hierarchical structures, and partly to impose a database standard. To help establish such standards, the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL), comprising representatives of the US government and the world of business and commerce formed a List Processing Task Force in 1965, subsequently renamed the Data Base Task Group (DBTG) in 1967. The terms of reference for the DBTG were to define standard specifications for an environment that would allow database creation and data manipulation. A draft report was issued in 1969 and the first definitive report in 1971.

Although, the report, was not formally adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), a number of systems were subsequently developed following the DBTG proposal. These systems are now known as CODASYL or DBTG systems. The CODASYL and hierarchical approaches represented the first-generation of DBMSs.

In 1970 E.F. Codd of the IBM Research Laboratory produced his highly influential paper on the relational data model. This paper was very timely and addressed the disadvantages of the former approaches. Many experimental relational DBMS's were implemented there after, with the first commercial products appearing in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Of particular note is the System R project at IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory in California, which was developed during the late 1970s.This project was designed to prove the practicality of the relational model by providing an implementation of its data structures and operations, and led to two major developments:

• The development 'of a structure query language called SQL, which has since become the standard language for relational DBMS's.

• The production of various commercial relational DBMS products during the 1980s, for example DB2 and SQL/DS from IBM and Oracle Corporation.

Now there are several hundred relational DBMSs for both mainframe and PC environments, though many are stretching the definition of the relational model. Other examples of multi-user relational DBMSs are INGRES-II from Computer Associates, and Informix Software, Inc. Examples of PC-based relational l)BMSs are Access and FoxPro from Microsoft, Paradox from Corel Corporation, InterBase and BDE from Borland, and R:Base from R:Base Technologies. Relational DBl\1Ss are referred to as second generation DBMSs

The relational model is not without its failures, and in particular its limited modeling capabilities. There has been much research since then attempting to address this problem. In 1976, Chen presented the Entity-Relationship model, which are now a widely accepted technique for database design and the basis for the methodology.

In 1979, Codd himself attempted to address some of the failures in-his original work with an extended version of the relational model called RM/T (1979) and subsequently RM/V2 (1990).The attempts to provide a data model that represents the 'real world' more closely have been loosely classified as semantic data modeling.

In response to the increasing complexity of database applications, two new systems have emerged: the Object Oriented DBMS (OODBMS) and the Object-Relational DBMS (ORDBMS). This evolution represents third-generation DBMSs.

Components of the Database System Environment

There are five major components in the database system environment and their interrelationship are.

• Hardware

• Software

• Data

• Users

• Procedures

                      

1.Hardware: The hardware is the actual computer system used for keeping and accessing the database. Conventional DBMS hardware consists of secondary storage devices, usually hard disks, on which the database physically resides, together with the associated Input-Output devices, device controllers and· so forth. Databases run on a' range of machines, from Microcomputers to large mainframes. Other hardware issues for a DBMS includes database machines, which is hardware designed specifically to support a database system.

2. Software: The software is the actual DBMS. Between the physical database itself (i.e. the data as actually stored) and the users of the system is a layer of software, usually called the Database Management System or DBMS. All requests from users for access to the database are handled by the DBMS. One general function provided by the DBMS is thus the shielding of database users from complex hardware-level detail.

The DBMS allows the users to communicate with the database. In a sense, it is the mediator between the database and the users. The DBMS controls the access and helps to maintain the consistency of the data. Utilities are usually included as part of the DBMS. Some of the most common utilities are report writers and application development.

                         

3. Data : It is the most important component of DBMS environment from the end users point of view. As shown in observes that data acts as a bridge between the machine components and the user components. The database contains the operational data and the meta-data, the 'data about data'.

The database should contain all the data needed by the organization. One of the major features of databases is that the actual data are separated from the programs that use the data. A database should always be designed, built and populated for a particular audience and for a specific purpose.

4. Users : There are a number of users who can access or retrieve data on demand using the applications and interfaces provided by the DBMS. Each type of user needs different software capabilities. The users of a database system can be classified in the following groups, depending on their degrees of expertise or the mode of their interactions with the DBMS. The users can be:

• Naive Users

• Online Users

• Application Programmers

• Sophisticated Users

• Data Base Administrator (DBA)

Naive Users: Naive Users are those users who need not be aware of the presence of the database system or any other system supporting their usage. Naive users are end users of the database who work through a menu driven application program, where the type and range of response is always indicated to the user.

A user of an Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) falls in this category. The user is instructed through each step of a transaction. He or she then responds by pressing a coded key or entering a numeric value. The operations that can be performed by valve users are very limited and affect only a precise portion of the database. For example, in the case of the user of the Automatic Teller Machine, user's action affects only one or more of his/her own accounts.

Online Users : Online users are those who may communicate with the database directly via an online terminal or indirectly via a user interface and application program. These users are aware of the presence of the database system and may have acquired a certain amount of expertise with in the limited interaction permitted with a database.

Sophisticated Users : Such users interact with the system without ,writing programs.

Instead, they form their requests in database query language. Each such query is submitted to a very processor whose function is to breakdown DML statement into instructions that the storage manager understands.

Specialized Users : Such users are those ,who write specialized database application that do not fit into the fractional data-processing framework. For example: Computer-aided design systems, knowledge base and expert system, systems that store data with complex data types (for example, graphics data and audio data).

Application Programmers : Professional programmers are those who are responsible for developing application programs or user interface. The application programs could be written using general purpose programming language or the commands available to manipulate a database.

Database Administrator: The database administrator (DBA) is the person or group in charge for implementing the database system ,within an organization. The "DBA has all the system privileges allowed by the DBMS and can assign (grant) and remove (revoke) levels of access (privileges) to and from other users. DBA is also responsible for the evaluation, selection and implementation of DBMS package. 

5. Procedures: Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database. The users of the system and the staff that manage the database require documented procedures on how to use or run the system.

These may consist of instructions on how to:

• Log on to the DBMS.

• Use a particular DBMS facility or application program.

• Start and stop the DBMS.

• Make backup copies of the database.

• Handle hardware or software failures.

Change the structure of a table, reorganize the database across multiple disks, improve performance, or archive data to secondary storage.

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Types of jobs: Information technology

• Applications developer
• Database administrator
• Games developer
• Geographical information systems officer
• Information security specialist
• Information systems manager
• IT consultant
• IT sales professional
• IT technical support officer
• Multimedia programmer
• Multimedia specialist
• Network engineer
• Systems analyst
• Systems developer
• Technical author
• Web designer

Applications developer

:Applications developers translate software requirements into workable programming code and maintain and develop programs for use in business. Most will specialise in a specific development field - such as mobile phone applications, accounting software, office suites or graphics software - and will have in-depth knowledge of at least one computer language.

The work of an applications developer differs with a systems developer in that systems software allows a computer to actually run. Users interface with the applications software, which is served by the systems software.

Applications, or 'apps', can be written for a particular system, such as Windows or Android, or across numerous platforms, including computers and mobile devices.

Job titles and specific duties may vary between organisations but the role usually involves writing specifications and designing, building, testing, implementing and sometimes supporting applications using programming languages and development tools.

Applications developers work in a wide range of business sectors, including finance and the public sector. They often work as part of a team with other IT professionals, such as software engineers and systems analysts, and write programs according to their specifications. They may also work on generic products or for individual clients providing bespoke solutions.

Typical work activities

The principal function of an applications developer is to make computers perform specific tasks, based on the client's specifications.

Activities typically include:

• establishing a detailed program specification through discussion with clients;
• clarifying what actions the program is intended to perform;
• breaking down program specification into its simplest elements and translating this logic into a programming language;
• devising possible solutions to anticipated problems;
• working as part of a team, which may be established purely for a particular project, to write a specific section of the program;
• combining all elements of the program design and testing it;
• testing sample data-sets to check that output from the program works as intended;
• conducting testing and installing the program into production;
• reacting to problems and correcting the program as necessary;
• evaluating and increasing the program's effectiveness;
• adapting the program to new requirements, as necessary;
• conducting user acceptance testing to ensure the program can be used easily, quickly and accurately;
• writing detailed documentation for the operation of the program by users and computer operators;
• consulting manuals, periodicals and technical reports to learn new ways to develop programs and maintain existing skills and knowledge;
• updating, repairing, modifying and developing existing software and generic applications.

Database administrator:

A database administrator (DBA) is responsible for the performance, integrity and security of a database. They will also be involved in the planning and development of the database as well as troubleshooting any issues on behalf of the users.

A DBA makes sure that databases have the following qualities:

• data remains consistent across the database;
• data is clearly defined;
• users access data concurrently, in a form that suits their needs;
• there is provision for data security and recovery control (all data is retrievable in an emergency).

DBA roles vary depending on the type of database, the processes they administer and the capabilities of the database management system (DBMS) in use.

Typical work activities

Your level of responsibility will determine the tasks you carry out in the job. Some work may be pure maintenance while other roles will involve you specialising in database development.

Tasks may involve some or all of the following:

• establishing the needs of users and monitoring user access and security;
• monitoring performance and managing parameters to provide fast responses to front-end users;
• mapping out the conceptual design for a planned database;
• considering both back-end organisation of data and front-end accessibility for end-users;
• refining the logical design so that it can be translated into a specific data model;
• further refining the physical design to meet system storage requirements;
• installing and testing new versions of the DBMS;
• maintaining data standards, including adherence to the Data Protection Act;
• writing database documentation, including data standards, procedures and definitions for the data dictionary (metadata);
• controlling access permissions and privileges;
• developing, managing and testing back-up and recovery plans;
• ensuring that storage and archiving procedures are functioning correctly;
• capacity planning;
• working closely with IT project managers, database programmers and multimedia programmers;
• communicating regularly with technical, applications and operational staff to ensure database integrity and security;
• commissioning and installing new applications and customising existing applications in order to make them fit for purpose.

Because of the increasing levels of hacking and the sensitive nature of data stored, security and disaster recovery have become increasingly important aspects of the work.

Games developer

Games developers are involved in the creation and production of games for personal computers, games consoles, social/online games, arcade games, tablets, mobile phones and other hand held devices. Their work involves either design (including art and animation) or programming.

Games development is a fast-moving, multi-billion pound industry. The making of a game from concept to finished product can take up to three years and involve teams of up to 200 professionals.

There are many stages, including creating and designing a game's look and how it plays, animating characters and objects, creating audio, programming, localisation, testing and producing.

The games developer job title covers a broad area of work and there are many specialisms within the industry. These include:

• quality assurance tester;
• programmer, with various specialisms such as network, engine, toolchain and artificial intelligence;
• audio engineer;
• artist, including concept artist, animator and 3D modeller;
• producer;
• editor;
• designer;
• special effects technician.

Geographical information systems officer

Geographic information systems (GIS) are computerised systems used for the collection, storage, analysis, manipulation and presentation of complex geographical information. Previously, this would have been a combination of electronic versions of traditional paper maps and social and economic data.

GIS systems are employed by most sectors of government and commerce and a geographical information systems officer may work for a wide range of employers. Roles can vary but all GIS officers are involved in the production of maps and the analysis of data. They use this to help plan, protect and deliver services or products in areas such as defence, construction, oil, gas, water, telecoms, electricity, the environment, healthcare, transport planning and operation, retail location planning and logistics, insurance and finance.

GIS technology allows many different forms of data (such as the location of rivers and roads, or information about soil or vegetation, or about people) to be overlaid on top of each other on one map. The data can be manipulated so that all the sources have the same scales, allowing complex readings to be taken from the map. This enables people to analyse patterns and better understand relationships between things and the implications of proposed developments and changes.

With such a wide range of possible roles available in the public, private and third sectors, there is even the potential to combine a career in GIS with other interests or passions. As the world becomes more mobile, the rise of applications utilising GPS (global positioning systems), such as geotagging photographs and augmented reality, could lead to new uses for GIS and opportunities in the field.

Information security specialist

Information security specialists' work centres on understanding the risks to the security of information or data.

They analyse where security breaches may occur or have occurred, and repair or strengthen systems against such breaches. This relates to the systems and networks used by companies and organisations to manage their information and information technology.

Information security specialists may have expertise in working with different types of computer networks. These could include networks associated with the government, the defence industry, or the banking sector and, for example, with those associated with:

• laptop;
• mobile telephone and application technologies;
• the Payment Card Industry (PCI);
• cloud computing.

Within the broad field of information and cyber security, there are many roles dealing with its different aspects. These roles do not, and cannot, exist in isolation of each other and it's likely that a specialist working in one area will develop understanding of the work in other areas.

As employers use slightly different job titles for the same role, overlaps between roles can occur. Therefore, when exploring careers in information and cyber security, read job descriptions thoroughly to get an understanding of what's involved with a particular role.

Information systems manager

An information systems manager is responsible for the computer systems within a company. They:

• oversee installation;
• ensure back up systems operate effectively;
• purchase hardware and software;
• provide the ICT technology infrastructures for an organisation;
• contribute to organisational policy regarding quality standards and strategic planning.

Information systems managers work in every size of organisation in the industry and the service sector, usually with a staff of technicians, programmers and database administrators reporting to them.

You'll need experience in the sector, in areas like technical support or operations, before becoming a manager.

Although the title of information systems manager is becoming more common in the ICT sector, job titles may vary. For example, you might be a:

• service delivery manager;
• functional manager;
• systems manager.

IT consultant

An IT consultant works in partnership with clients, advising them how to use information technology in order to meet their business objectives or overcome problems. They work to improve the structure and efficiency of IT systems in various organisations.

IT consultants may be used to provide strategic guidance to clients with regard to technology, IT infrastructures and enabling major business processes through enhancements to IT.

They can also be used to provide guidance during selection and procurement as well as providing highly expert technical assistance, and may be responsible for user training and feedback.

IT consultants may be involved in sales and business development, as well as technical duties.

IT sales professional

The work of an IT sales professional falls into three main areas of pre-sales, sales and post-sale support of hardware and software.

The first area involves supporting pre-sales activities by giving detailed information about technical specifications and the ways in which they could meet a customer's needs. This often includes demonstrating those features before a sale. In some cases it also involves responding to a PQQ (pre-qualification questionnaire) and then, if short listed, replying to a more detailed ITT (information to tender) document.

The actual sale involves negotiating a commercial agreement to the benefit of both the customer and supplier.

Technical support, which follows the sale, may include solving faults and problems, or maximising the use of software features, as well as advising on appropriate user training.  

IT technical support officer

IT technical support officers monitor and maintain the computer systems and networks of an organisation. They may install and configure computer systems, diagnose hardware and software faults and solve technical and applications problems, either over the phone or in person. Depending on the size of the organisation, a technical support officer's role may span one or more areas of expertise.

Organisations increasingly rely on computer systems in all areas of their operations and decision-making processes. It is therefore usually crucial to ensure the correct running and maintenance of the IT systems.

IT technical support officers may be known by other job titles including help desk operators, technicians, maintenance engineers or applications support specialists. The work is as much about understanding how information systems are used as applying technical knowledge related to computer hardware or software.

Multimedia programmer

A multimedia programmer works with different multimedia features such as, text, sound, graphics, digital photography, 2D/3D modelling, animation and video to create products such as websites or computer programmes.

Multimedia products mainly work on the internet but can also be used in:

• interactive television;
• information kiosks;
• DVDs;
• CD-ROMs;
• computer games consoles;
• mobile phones. 

Programmers may come from a design or computing background, but the role demands a combination of both creative and technical skills. The multimedia programmer usually works to a designer's specification.

Other common terms for multimedia include:

• new media;
• interactive media;
• digital media;
• online/internet services.

As IT job titles and descriptions aren't standardised, the work of a multimedia programmer may overlap with the role of a web developer or games developer, systems developer or software engineer.

Multimedia specialist

Multimedia specialists combine design and technical knowledge to create information and communication technology (ICT) based products that entertain, educate or inform the user.

Common multimedia products include:

• computer games;
• CD-ROMs;
• DVDs;
• websites;
• catalogue databases.

As well as the vast gaming industry, there is a huge demand for education and training materials within the education, and public and private business sectors. Businesses also require a wealth of advertising and marketing materials to promote their products, and a range of other organisations, such as those that provide information services to the public, need specialist information resource materials.

When the design is complete, multimedia specialists use authoring software to arrange the files in a single program, to enable interactivity and navigation through the product content. They also test and adjust the product to fix any technical problems, and produce documentation describing the creation, content and processes of files.

Network engineer

Network engineers are responsible for implementing, maintaining, supporting, developing and, in some cases designing communication networks within an organisation or between organisations.

Their goal is to ensure the integrity of high availability network infrastructure in order to provide maximum performance for their users, such as staff, clients, customers and suppliers. Networks can include:

• computer;
• voice;
• firewall.

Network engineers may work internally as part of an organisation's IT support team, or externally as part of an outsourced IT networking consultancy firm working with a number of clients.

Other job titles used to refer to this kind of work include:

• network support;
• support engineer;
• IT support engineer;
• helpdesk support;
• network administrator;
• first-line support;
• second-line support;
• security engineer;
• network architect;
• VoIP engineer;
• Cisco engineer;
• systems engineer;
• systems support engineer.

Systems analyst

A systems analyst uses computers and related systems to design new IT solutions, modify, enhance or adapt existing systems and integrate new features or improvements, all with the aim of improving business efficiency and productivity.

They must possess a high level of technical expertise and clear insights into current business practices. Depending on the employer, clients may be internal, e.g. departments within the same organisation, or external.

They:

• examine existing IT systems and business models;
• analyse systems requirements;
• undertake product development;
• implement, configure and test feasible solutions.

They liaise and report to internal and external clients and stakeholders, including colleagues and developers.

An increasingly integrated approach is being adopted as the role evolves, where the client is involved throughout the development process. The analyst acts as liaison between the client and the developers.

They conduct a cost analysis and agree the timeframe to implement the proposed solution. They specify and shape the system requirements and operations, the user interface and output and present the proposal to the client. They work closely with the client team, including commercial managers and software developers, during both the report and implementation phase.

Job titles in the IT sector are fluid, changing with advances in technology, and also varying between organisations.

It is vital to look closely at job descriptions rather than job titles e.g. analysts may be known as systems or business analysts and the trend is currently towards including the term 'solutions' in the job title.

Fourth generation languages (4GL) and object-orientated programming simplify technological language resulting in less of a need for detailed or formalised specification requirements, so traditional boundaries between systems or business analysis and programming have eroded. Overlap with project management is also common.

Systems developer

Systems developers maintain, audit and improve organisational support systems by working on the internal operations of computers, using existing systems or incorporating new technologies to meet particular needs, often as advised by a systems analyst or architect. They test both hard and software systems, and diagnose and resolve system faults.

The role also covers writing diagnostic programs and designing and writing code for operating systems and software to ensure efficiency. When required, they make recommendations for future developments. Depending on the type of organisation, developers can become either systems or applications specialists. 

The work undertaken by systems developers is generally of a highly complex and technical nature, and involves the application of computer science and mathematics in an environment which is constantly evolving due to technological advances and the strategic direction of their organisation.

Job titles and descriptions in IT are not standardised. Systems developers may be called systems programmers, engineers, or web developers. Alternatively, the programming language they use may become part of their title, such as Java or C# developer. The work of a systems developer can also form part of a software engineer or multimedia programmer's role.

Depending on the organisation, a systems developer may have a more defined role and work within a group of IT specialists, which can include systems analysts and systems designers, or they may work solely on testing systems. Nevertheless, as systems developers often manage the support systems required by an organisation to effectively run, the role can also require an employee to communicate effectively and translate the needs of different teams into systems developments.

Technical author

Technical authors help to communicate technical information about products and services in a way that is easy to understand. The information may be presented in the form of user guides for software applications, reference and instruction manuals for appliances, training guides or online help incorporated into software and operating guides. 

They have to establish an understanding of the product or applications and then design and write documentation to explain it to users. They may also provide this information in various other forms including software demos and interactive tutorials, using video, illustrations and graphics.

Technical authors work for a range of industries including automation, avionics, chemical, defence, finance, government, manufacturing, medical and pharmaceutical supplies, nuclear energy, quality assurance, IT and telecommunications, transport and utilities.

Technical authors are also known as information designers/developers, technical writers and technical communicators.

Web designer

Web designers plan, create and code web pages, using both non-technical and technical skills to produce websites that fit the customer's requirements.

They are involved in the technical and graphical aspects of pages, producing not just the look of the website but determining how it works as well. Web designers might also be responsible for the maintenance of an existing site.

The term web developer is sometimes used interchangeably with web designer, but this can be confusing. Web developing is a more specialist role, focusing on the back-end development of a website and will incorporate, among other things, the creation of highly complex search functions.

The recent growth in touchscreen phones and tablet devices has dictated a new way of designing websites, with the web designer needing to ensure that web pages are responsive no matter the type of device a viewer is using. Therefore the need to test websites at different stages of design on a variety of different devices has become an important aspect of the job.

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